사람들은 종종 다른 사람에게 혜택을 주기 위해 행동하며, 이러한 행동은 친사회적 행동의 예입니다. 이러한 행동은 도움이 필요한 개인을 돕는 것, 개인 자원을 공유하는 것, 시간, 노력 및 전문 지식을 자원하는 것, 공동의 목표를 달성하기 위해 다른 사람들과 협력하는 것 등 다양한 형태로 나타날 수 있습니다. 이 모듈에서는 한 사람은 도움이 필요하고 다른 사람은 상대방의 필요를 해소하기 위해 필요한 도움을 제공하는 이중적 상황에서의 친사회적 행동에 초점을 맞추고 있습니다. 사람들은 종종 도움이 필요하지만 항상 도움을 주는 것은 아닙니다. 왜 안 될까요? 도움을 줄지 여부를 결정하는 것은 생각만큼 간단하고 간단한 일이 아니며, 도움을 줄 수 있는 사람은 여러 가지 요소를 고려해야 합니다. 이 모듈에서는 질문에 대한 답을 통해 도움의 결정이 어떻게 이루어지는지 이해하려고 합니다: 누가 언제, 왜 돕는가?

• Altruism
• Bystander intervention
• Helping
• Prosocial behavior

학습 목표

• Learn which situational and social factors affect when a bystander will help another in need.
• Understand which personality and individual difference factors make some people more likely to help than others.
• Discover whether we help others out of a sense of altruistic concern for the victim, for more self-centered and egoistic motives, or both.

방관자가 어려움에 처한 다른 사람을 도울 때 어떤 상황적, 사회적 요인이 영향을 미치는지 알아보세요.
어떤 성격 및 개인차 요인이 어떤 사람을 다른 사람보다 도울 가능성이 더 높은지 이해합니다.
우리가 피해자에 대한 이타적인 관심으로 다른 사람을 돕는지, 아니면 자기 중심적이고 이기적인 동기로 돕는지, 아니면 둘 다인지 알아보세요.

Outside Resources

Article: Alden, L. E., & Trew, J. L. (2013). If it makes you happy: Engaging in kind acts increases positive affect in socially anxious individuals. Emotion, 13, 64-75. doi:10.1037/a0027761 Review available at:

http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2015/07/one-way-to-get-over-your-social-anxiety-be-nice.html

Book: Batson, C.D. (2009). Altruism in humans. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Book: Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., Schroeder, D. A., & Penner, L. A. (2006). The social psychology of prosocial behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Book: Mikuliner, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2010). Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Book: Schroeder, D. A. & Graziano, W. G. (forthcoming). The Oxford handbook of prosocial behavior. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Institution: Center for Generosity, University of Notre Dame, 936 Flanner Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556.

http://www.generosityresearch.nd.edu

Institution: The Greater Good Science Center, University of California, Berkeley.

http://www.greatergood.berkeley.edu

News Article: Bystanders Stop Suicide Attempt

http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/crow/bystander.pdf

Social Psychology Network (SPN)

http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm#prosocial

Video: Episodes (individual) of “Primetime: What Would You Do?”

http://www.YouTube.com

Video: Episodes of “Primetime: What Would You Do?” that often include some commentary from experts in the field may be available at

http://www.abc.com

Video: From The Inquisitive Mind website, a great overview of different aspects of helping and pro-social behavior including - pluralistic ignorance, diffusion of responsibility, the bystander effect, and empathy.

Discussion Questions

1. Pluralistic ignorance suggests that inactions by other observers of an emergency will decrease the likelihood that help will be given. What do you think will happen if even one other observer begins to offer assistance to a victim?
2. In addition to those mentioned in the module, what other costs and rewards might affect a potential helper’s decision of whether to help? Receiving help to solve some problem is an obvious benefit for someone in need; are there any costs that a person might have to bear as a result of receiving help from someone?
3. What are the characteristics possessed by your friends who are most helpful? By your friends who are least helpful? What has made your helpful friends and your unhelpful friends so different? What kinds of help have they given to you, and what kind of help have you given to them? Are you a helpful person?
4. Do you think that sex and gender differences in the frequency of helping and the kinds of helping have changed over time? Why? Do you think that we might expect more changes in the future?
5. What do you think is the primary motive for helping behavior: egoism or altruism? Are there any professions in which people are being “pure” altruists, or are some egoistic motivations always playing a role?
6. There are other prosocial behaviors in addition to the kind of helping discussed here. People volunteer to serve many different causes and organizations. People come together to cooperate with one another to achieve goals that no one individual could reach alone. How do you think the factors that affect helping might affect prosocial actions such as volunteering and cooperating? Do you think that there might be other factors that make people more or less likely to volunteer their time and energy or to cooperate in a group?

Vocabulary

Agreeableness

A core personality trait that includes such dispositional characteristics as being sympathetic, generous, forgiving, and helpful, and behavioral tendencies toward harmonious social relations and likeability.

Altruism

A motivation for helping that has the improvement of another’s welfare as its ultimate goal, with no expectation of any benefits for the helper.

Arousal: cost–reward model

An egoistic theory proposed by Piliavin et al. (1981) that claims that seeing a person in need leads to the arousal of unpleasant feelings, and observers are motivated to eliminate that aversive state, often by helping the victim. A cost–reward analysis may lead observers to react in ways other than offering direct assistance, including indirect help, reinterpretation of the situation, or fleeing the scene.

Bystander intervention

The phenomenon whereby people intervene to help others in need even if the other is a complete stranger and the intervention puts the helper at risk.

Cost–benefit analysis

A decision-making process that compares the cost of an action or thing against the expected benefit to help determine the best course of action.

Diffusion of responsibility

When deciding whether to help a person in need, knowing that there are others who could also provide assistance relieves bystanders of some measure of personal responsibility, reducing the likelihood that bystanders will intervene.

Egoism

A motivation for helping that has the improvement of the helper’s own circumstances as its primary goal.

Empathic concern

According to Batson’s empathy–altruism hypothesis, observers who empathize with a person in need (that is, put themselves in the shoes of the victim and imagine how that person feels) will experience empathic concern and have an altruistic motivation for helping.

Empathy–altruism model

An altruistic theory proposed by Batson (2011) that claims that people who put themselves in the shoes of a victim and imagining how the victim feel will experience empathic concern that evokes an altruistic motivation for helping.

Helpfulness

A component of the prosocial personality orientation; describes individuals who have been helpful in the past and, because they believe they can be effective with the help they give, are more likely to be helpful in the future.

Helping

Prosocial acts that typically involve situations in which one person is in need and another provides the necessary assistance to eliminate the other’s need.

Kin selection

According to evolutionary psychology, the favoritism shown for helping our blood relatives, with the goals of increasing the likelihood that some portion of our DNA will be passed on to future generations.

Negative state relief model

An egoistic theory proposed by Cialdini et al. (1982) that claims that people have learned through socialization that helping can serve as a secondary reinforcement that will relieve negative moods such as sadness.

Other-oriented empathy

A component of the prosocial personality orientation; describes individuals who have a strong sense of social responsibility, empathize with and feel emotionally tied to those in need, understand the problems the victim is experiencing, and have a heightened sense of moral obligations to be helpful.

Personal distress

According to Batson’s empathy–altruism hypothesis, observers who take a detached view of a person in need will experience feelings of being “worried” and “upset” and will have an egoistic motivation for helping to relieve that distress.

Pluralistic ignorance

Relying on the actions of others to define an ambiguous need situation and to then erroneously conclude that no help or intervention is necessary.

Prosocial behavior

Social behavior that benefits another person.

Prosocial personality orientation

A measure of individual differences that identifies two sets of personality characteristics (other-oriented empathy, helpfulness) that are highly correlated with prosocial behavior.

Reciprocal altruism

According to evolutionary psychology, a genetic predisposition for people to help those who have previously helped them.

References

• Batson, C. D. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Becker, S. W., & Eagly, A. H. (2004). The heroism of women and men. American Psychologist, 59, 163–178.
• Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 773–789.
• Buss, D. M. (2004). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Boston, MA: Allyn Bacon.
• Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D. T. (1976). Altruism as hedonism: A social developmental perspective on the relationship of negative mood state and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 907–914.
• Cialdini, R. B., Darby, B. K. & Vincent, J. E. (1973). Transgression and altruism: A case for hedonism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 502–516.
• Cialdini, R. B., Kenrick, D. T., & Baumann, D. J. (1982). Effects of mood on prosocial behavior in children and adults. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 339–359). New York, NY: Academic Press.
• Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1998). Trait theories in personality. In D. F. Barone, M. Hersen, & V. B. Van Hasselt (Eds.), Advanced Personality (pp. 103–121). New York, NY: Plenum.
• Darley, J. M. & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377–383.
• Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
• Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic structures: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188.
• Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., Schroeder, D. A., & Penner, L. A. (2006). The social psychology of prosocial behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Eagly, A. H., & Crowley, M. (1986). Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Review, 66, 183–201.
• Fisher, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincie, C., Kastenmiller, A., Frey, D., Henne, M., Wicher, M., & Kainbacher, M. (2011). The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review of bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 517–537.
• Graziano, W. G., & Tobin, R. (2009). Agreeableness. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
• Graziano, W. G., Habashi, M. M., Sheese, B. E., & Tobin, R. M. (2007). Agreeableness, empathy, and helping: A person x situation perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 583–599.
• Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetic evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–52.
• Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Penner, L. A., & Orom, H. (2010). Enduring goodness: A Person X Situation perspective on prosocial behavior. In M. Mikuliner & P.R. Shaver, P.R. (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 55–72). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Penner, L. A., Fritzsche, B. A., Craiger, J. P., & Freifeld, T. R. (1995). Measuring the prosocial personality. In J. Butcher & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 10, pp. 147–163). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Piliavin, J. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Clark, R. D., III (1981). Emergency intervention. New York, NY: Academic Press.
• Trivers, R. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology, 46, 35–57.
• Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 699–727.

Authors

• 

  Dennis L. Poepsel

  Dr. Dennis Poepsel, an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Truman State University, earned his doctorate in Experimental Psychology from the University of Arkansas. Dr. Poepsel studies the role fair procedures play in the promotion of cooperation both within and between groups.

• 

  David A. Schroeder

  David A. Schroeder is a Professor of Psychological Science at the University of Arkansas. He has taught large sections of General Psychology for nearly 40 years. His research interests range from the motivation for helping to cooperation in social dilemmas. In collaboration with William Graziano, he is editing the Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior.

Creative Commons License

Helping and Prosocial Behavior by Dennis L. Poepsel and David A. Schroeder is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our Licensing Agreement.

How to cite this Noba module using APA Style